Colloquia

Explosive volcanic eruptions inject into the atmosphere large amounts of volcanic material (ash, blocks and lapilli). Blocks and larger lapilli follow ballistic and non-ballistic trajectories and fall rapidly close to the volcano. In contrast, very fine ashes can remain entrapped in the atmosphere for months to years, and may affect the global climate in the case of large eruptions. Particles having sizes between these two end-members remain airborne from hours to days and can cover wide areas downwind. Such volcanic fallout entails a serious threat to aircraft safety and can create many undesirable effects to the communities located around the volcano. The assessment of volcanic fallout hazard is an important scientific, economic, and political issue, especially in densely populated areas. From a scientific point of view, considerable progress has been made during the last two decades through the use of increasingly powerful computational models and capabilities. Nowadays, models are used to quantify hazard scenarios and/or to give short-term forecasts during emergency situations. This talk will be focused on the main aspects related to modeling volcanic ash dispersal and fallout with application to the well known problem created by the Eyjafjöll volcano in Iceland. Moreover, a short description of the main volcanic monitoring techniques is presented..

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Seismic waves have been for long time the only messenger reporting on the conditions deep inside the Earth. While global seismology provides amazing details about the structure of our planet, it is only sensitive to the mechanical properties of rocks and not to their chemical composition. In the last 5 years KamLAND and Borexino have started measuring anti-neutrinos produced by Uranium and Thorium inside the Earth. Such "Geoneutrinos" double the number of tools available to study the Earth's interior, enabling a sort of global chemical analysis of the planet, albeit for two elements only.I will discuss the results of these new measurements and put them in the context of the Earth Sciences.".

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For the LHC to uncover many types of new physics, the "old physics" produced by the Standard Model must be understood very well. For decades, the central theoretical tool for this job was the Feynman diagram expansion. However, Feynman diagrams are just too slow, even on fast computers, to allow adequate precision for complicated LHC events with many jets in the final state. Such events are already visible in the initial LHC data. Over the past few years, alternative methods to Feynman diagrams have come to fruition. These new "on-shell" methods are based on the old principles of unitarity and factorization. They can be much more efficient because they exploit the underlying simplicity of scattering amplitudes, and recycle lower-loop information. I will describe how and why these methods work, and present some of the recent state-of-the-art results that have been obtained with them..

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In the last few years laboratory-scale femtosecond laser-based research using XUV light has developed dramatically following the successful development of attosecond laser pulses by means of high-harmonic generation. Using attosecond laser pulses, studies of electron dynamics on the natural timescale that electronic processes occur in atoms, molecules and solids can be contemplated, providing unprecedented insight into the fundamental role that electrons play in photo-induced processes. In my talk I will briefly review the present status of the attosecond science research field in terms of present and foreseen capabilities, and discuss a few recent applications, including a first example of the use of attosecond laser pulses in molecular science. In addition, I will discuss very recent results of experiments where photoionization of dynamically aligned molecules is investigated using a high-harmonics XUV source. Photoionization of aligned molecules becomes all the more interesting if the experiment is performed using x-ray photons. Following the absorption of x-rays, ejected photoelectrons can be used as a probe of the (time-evolving) molecular structure, making use of intra-molecular electron diffraction. This amounts, as some have stated, to "illuminating the molecule from within". I will present the present status of our experiments on this topic making use of the FLASH free electron laser in Hamburg. Future progress in this research field not only depends on the availability of better and more powerful light sources, but also requires sophisticated detector strategies. In my talk I will explain how we are trying to meet some of the experimental challenges by using the Medipix family of detectors, which we have already used for time- and space-resolved imaging of electrons and ions..

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- Physics, as we know it, attempts to interpret the diverse natural phenomena as particular manifestations of general laws. This vision of a world ruled by general testable laws is relatively recent in the history of mankind. Basically it was initiated by the Galilean inertial principle. The subsequent rapid development of large-scale physics is certainly tributary to the fact that gravitational and electromagnetic forces are long-range and hence can be perceived directly without the mediation of highly sophisticated technical devices. - The discovery of subatomic structures and of the concomitant weak and strong short-range forces raised the question of how to cope with short-range forces in relativistic quantum field theory. The Fermi theory of weak interactions, formulated in terms of point-like current-current interaction, was well-defined in lowest order perturbation theory and accounted for existing experimental data.However, it was inconsistent in higher orders because of uncontrollable divergent quantum fluctuations. In technical terms, in contradistinction to quantum electrodynamics, the Fermi theorywas not "renormalizable". This difficulty could not be solved by smoothing the point-like interaction by a massive, and therefore short-range, charged "vector" particle exchange: theories with massive charged vector bosons were not renormalizable either. In the early nineteen sixties, there seemed to be insuperable obstacles to formulating a consistent theory with short-range forces mediated by massive vectors. - The breakthrough came from the notion of spontaneous symmetry breaking which arose in the study of phase transitions and was introduced in field theory by Nambu in 1960. - Ferromagnets illustrate the notion in phase transitions. Although no direction is dynamically preferred, the magnetization selects a global orientation. This is a spontaneous broken symmetry(SBS)of rotational invariance. Such continuous SBS imply the existence of "massless" modes (here spin-waves), which are the ancestors of the NG bosons discussed below. Fluctuations of the order parameter (the magnetization) are described by a "massive" SBS mode. - In field theory, Nambu showed that broken chiral symmetry from a spontaneous generation of hadron masses induces massless pseudoscalar modes (identified with a massless limit of pion fields). This illustrates a general phenomenon made explicit by Goldstone: massless Nambu-Goldstone (NG) bosons are a necessary concomitant of spontaneously broken continuous symmetries. Massive SBS scalars bosons describe, as in phase transitions, the fluctuations of the SBS order parameters. - In 1964, with Robert Brout, we discovered a mechanism based on SBS by which short range interactions are generated from long range ones. A similar proposal was then made independently by Higgs in a different approach. Qualitatively, our mechanism works as follows. The long range fundamental electromagnetic and gravitational interactions are governed by extended symmetries,called gauge symmetries, which were supposed to guarantee that the elementary field constituents which transmit the forces, photons or gravitons, be massless. We considered a generalization of the electromagnetic "vector" field, known as Yang-Mills fields, and coupled them to fields which acquire from SBS constant values in the vacuum. These fields pervade space, as did magnetization, but they have no spatial orientation: they are "scalar'' fields. The vector Yang-Mills fields which interact with the scalar fields become massive and hence the forces they mediate become short ranged. We also showed that the mechanism can survive in absence of elementary scalar fields. - Because of the extended symmetries, the nature of SBS is profoundly altered: the NG fields are absorbed into the massive vector Yang-Mills fields and restore the gauge symmetry. This has a dramatic consequence. To confront precision experiments, the mechanism should be consistent at the quantum mechanical level, or in technical terms, should yield a "renormalizable" theory. From our analysis of the preserved gauge symmetry, we suggested in 1966 that this is indeed the case, in contradistinction to the aforementioned earlier theories of charged massive vector fields. The full proof of "renormalizability" is subtle and was achieved in the impressive work of 't Hooft and Veltman. One gains some insight into the subtleties by making explicit the equivalence of Higgs' approach with ours. - To a large extend, the LHC was build to detect the massive SBS scalar boson, i.e. the fluctuations of the scalar field. More elaborate realizations of the mechanism without elementary scalars are possible, but their experimental confirmation may (or may not) be outside the scope of present available technology. - The mechanism of Brout, Englert and Higgs unified in the same theoretical framework short- and long-range forces. It became the cornerstone of the electroweak theory and opened the way to a modern view on unified laws of nature..

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Human actors, workplace cultures and knowledge production: Gender studies analyse the social constructions and cultural representations of gender. Using methods and tools from the humanities and social science, we look at all areas, including the natural sciences and technology, science education and research labs. After a short introduction to gender studies, the main focus of my talk will be the presentation of selected research findings on gender and high energy physics. You will hear about an ongoing research project on women in neutrino physics and learn about a study on the world of high energy physicists characterised by "rites of passage" and "male tales" told during a life in physics. I will also present a study on how the HEP community communicates, and research findings on the naming culture in HEP. Getting to know findings from another field on your own might contribute to create a high energy physics culture that is fair and welcoming to all genders..

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The search for "neutrino-less double-bete decay" decay in candidate nuclear isotopes remains a central focus in contemporary particle physics, with the main goal of establishing whether the neutrino is its own anti-particle. A positive detection would also establish the presence of lepton number violation in this decay, and suggest the existence of processes beyond the Standard Model and reach of terrestrial accelerators. With the discovery and quantitative assessment of neutrino flavor oscillation, guaranteeing the presence of a non-zero neutrino mass – a requirement for "neutrino-less double-bete decay" decay to occur – motivation has surged. In a review of the present diverse and vigorous current experimental situation, I must focus on just a few approaches and candidate isotopes, in particular on 136Xe and a new experimental effort, NEXT, exploiting the unfamiliar phenomenon of electroluminescence. But, even if the neutrino is its own anti-particle, experiments may see no decays! Still, the high physical significance of a positive result makes the quest attractive, perhaps even irresistible..

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In this talk, Professor Lessig will review the evolution of access to scientific scholarship, and evaluate the success of this system of access against a background norm of universal access.While copyright battles involving artists has gotten most of the public's attention, the real battle should be over access to knowledge, not culture. That battle we are losing..

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Insights from black hole physics and developments in string theory strongly indicate that the gravity is derived from an underlying microscopic description in which it has no a priori meaning. Starting from first principles we argue that inertia and gravity are caused by the fact that phase space volume (or entropy) associated with the underlying microscopic system is influenced by the positions of material objects. Application of these ideas to cosmology leads to surprising new insights into the nature of dark energy and dark matter..

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Work on the Origin of Life is poised to converge onto a fourth phase and, many of us hope, success. The first phase concerned prebiotic synthesis of the small molecules, amino acids, nucleotides, lipids and others, essential for life and spanned some forty years. The second overlapping phase was inspired by the symmetric of the DNA or RNA double helix, presumed that life must necessarily be based on some form of template replication of one strand by ligation of free nucleotides to create the second strand, melting of the two strands and cycling again. Spearheaded by L. Orgel, but with many others, this effort has, to date, failed. The third phase begins with the discovery that RNA molecules can act as enzymes, and posited the RNA world, in which RNA molecules dominated. This has led to slightly successful efforts to evolve an RNA sequence able to template replicate itself. Current success is an evolved ribozyme able to do so for 14 nucleotides. The forth phase is converging around four ideas: 1) liposomes, hollow bilipid spheres obtainable from lipids in water, can grow and divide. We now widely hope that these can serve as "containers" bounding proto-cells. 2) Sources of free energy, from pyrophosphate to proton pumps. 3) A minimal metabolism in a "messy" systems chemistry which supplies the small amino acids, nucleotides and lipids for proto -life. 4) Collectively autocatalytic sets of polymers, peptides, RNA, or other, which achieve molecular reproduction in dividing liposome containers, hence also open ended evolution. At present, a 9 peptide collectively autocatalytic set has been constructend, achieving catalytic closure, and demonstrated beyond doubt that the DNA or RNA double helix is not needed for molecular reproduction. In addition a two membered DNA autocatalytic set has been constructed and two two membered RNA ribozyme autocatalytic sets have been selected from a large RNA library. The author, in 1971 and 1986 proposed a theory in which the emergence of collectively autocatalytic sets is a first order phase transition as the diversity of polymers that are also candidates to catalyse the reactions they undergo, increases in diversity. Recent theorems have improved upon this initial model, simulations have shown that small collectively autocatalytic sets can emerge in this process and grow together, and also that, in the presence of inhibition of catalysis and if contained in duplicating containers, can indeed serve as plausible protocells able to evolve indefinitely. The author has gathered some 17 scientists from around the world to collaborate and compete with one another, CERN/LHC experiments style, in a generative scientific environment..

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Borexino is a liquid scintillator unsegmented detector, running at the Gran Sasso underground Laboratories (LNGS). Thanks to its unprecedented low level of radioactive contamination, Borexino currently is the only experiment able to perform a real time measurement of solar neutrino interactions below few MeV. In solar neutrinos Borexino measured the neutrino flux from 7Be (862 keV) with total uncertainty smaller than 5%, the flux from 8B with a lower threshold down to 3 MeV, the day/night asymmetry of the 7Be neutrino flux with a total experimental uncertainty of 1%. These measurements introduce strong constraints also on the solar neutrino flux from the pp and CNO reactions. The impact of these Borexino results are extremely relevant both in solar physics, in connection with the understanding of Sun-like stars, and in neutrino physics. In particular, the precision measurement of the 7Be solar neutrino flux allows a real time investigation of neutrino oscillations below few MeV and provides a unique opportunity to probe and validate the currently favored neutrino oscillation paradigm in the so far untested /vacuum/regime. Furthermore, these results single out the Large Mixing Angle (LMA) region of the neutrino oscillation parameter space at the confidence level >8.5 sigma, without including the data from the KamLAND antineutrino reactor experiment in a combined fit, i.e. with no need to rely on CPT conservation in the neutrino sector. This outcome is especially interesting in view of the recent experimental hints of possible differences between the oscillation parameters of neutrino and antineutrino.In the geo-neutrinos, Borexino reached the first actual evidence of neutrinos from the Earth at 4.2 sigma C.L., connected with the radioactive decays in the Earth crust and mantle. Borexino is scheduled to continue data taking for the coming years and to further its investigation of solar neutrinos over the entire solar neutrino energy spectrum, pep and CNO (and perhaps pp) fluxes included. In the meantime the collected statistics of geoneutrinos is increasing to allow a better evaluation of the percentage of the terrestrial heat due to the radioactive decays..

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The fundamental discoveries made by Edwin Hubble in the first quarter of the last century will be presented. The space telescope bearing his name will be introduced, as well as the strategy put in place by NASA and the European Space Agency for its operation and its maintenance on-orbit. The personal experience of the speaker having participated in two of five servicing mission will be exposed and illustrated by pictures taken on-orbit. Finally, the main results obtained by the orbital observatory will be presented, in particular the ones related to the large scale structure of the Universe and its early history.

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